JCDP

Early Instrumental Data

Recovery of 19th century meteorological data in Japan

Japan is regarded as one of the many blank spots in the pre-1900 world, as the official meteorological network started only in the 1870s. Prior to 1872, no Japanese meteorological records were thought to exist apart from visual data documented in diaries (Mikami, 1988; Mikami et al., 2000; Mikami, 2008) of Japanese administrators at many places in Japan. Until recently, it was believed that the only pre-1872 instrumental data regarding Japanese climate were taken by the Dutch in the settlement of Dejima (Nagasaki). Recently, however, it was (re)discovered (Amano, 1952, 1953; Tsukahara, 2005) that for a few places in Japan, most noticeably Edo (Tokyo) and Osaka, sub-daily weather records were taken routinely by Japanese scientists. These Japanese meteorological observations were associated with the development of astronomical research by the so-called ‘Dutch Study’ scholars, as a result of Japan’s modernization and the introduction of modern western instruments. As these data, on the one hand, partly overlap with the Dejima data, while on the other, fill some of its gaps, a search was started to recover them from Japanese archives and elsewhere.

Pre-1900 availability of meteorological data in Japan. Grey:　official meteorological stations from JMA
(Zaiki et al., 2006)

Example of early meteorological records at Dejima, Nagasaki in 1852 and 1853

Topics

Anomaly maps in “Climate Atlas”

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　
Junpei Hirano

In climatology, we use values called “anomalies” to understand the average state of climatic elements (atmospheric pressure, temperature, precipitation, sunshine duration, and solar radiation, etc.). The “normal” is defined as the average value of climatic factors during the past 30 years. Since the average value changes due to climate change such as global warming, the normal is updated every ten years. For example, for the 10-year period from 2011 to 2020, the 1981-2010 average was used as the “normal,” but it was updated in 2021, and for the 10-year period from 2021 to 2030, the 1991-2020 average will be used as the “new normal.

In weather forecasting, the term “warmer (colder) than normal” is sometimes used, but in this case, “normal” refers to the “normal” value of temperature. In other words, the “normal value” of temperature is the standard for evaluating the warmth (coldness), etc. of each year. The difference between the temperature of each year and the normal is called the ” anomaly”. In the case of temperature, a positive anomaly indicates a warmer than normal year, while a negative anomaly indicates a colder than normal year. A map of temperature anomalies shows the distribution of areas with warmer-than-normal temperatures (positive anomaly areas) and areas with colder-than-normal temperatures (negative anomaly areas).

Similar to temperature, precipitation can also be plotted based on the “normal” value. However, in the case of precipitation, anomalies are generally expressed as the ratio of precipitation to the normal (ratio of normal to precipitation). For example, if you draw a precipitation anomaly map for a year with an El Niño or La Niña event, you can see areas with more or less rainfall than normal. Global precipitation anomaly maps for summer (June-August) and winter (December-February) of El Niño events are available on the Climate Atlas “World” page. However, as the basis for the anomalies, we have used the 43-year average for the period 1979-2021, for which precipitation data are available, instead of the 30-year “normal. Green-colored areas indicate areas of higher-than-normal rainfall, while brown-colored areas indicate areas of lower-than-normal rainfall. It can be seen that in El Niño years, there is more rainfall in the eastern tropical Pacific and less in the western tropical Pacific.

Furthermore, by comparing the precipitation anomaly map with the SST anomaly map, we can see the relationship between SST anomalies and precipitation anomalies. For example, in the “Winter DJF SST anomaly map for El Niño years”, the eastern tropical Pacific is colored red, indicating that SSTs are higher than normal. In an El Niño year, the sea surface temperature in this region is high, which activates cumulus convection and leads to heavy rainfall.

Global precipitation anomaly maps for summer (June – August) and winter (December – February) La Niña years show the opposite pattern (heavy rainfall in the eastern tropical Pacific and less rainfall in the western tropical Pacific). In La Niña years, sea surface temperatures (SSTs) drop below normal in the eastern tropical Pacific (see SST anomaly distribution in La Niña years), which suppresses cumulus convection and results in less rainfall.

The JCDP “Climate Atlas” will include various climate anomaly maps in the future. We recommend that you use the anomaly maps in the JCDP Climate Atlas when explaining “extreme weather” and its spatial distribution in high school geography and geology courses and in university liberal arts courses.